Development — Paweł Starzec

Development is a series of case studies on Polish urbanised and/or inhabited space, with a goal to get answers about the shape of post-1989, post-transformation Poland. It’s not a way to ridicule the most bizarre cases of spatial design and architecture, but rather an attempt to understand what came out of the turn – new actors, aesthetics that once seemed extravagantly new. What gave the impression of newer, richer, bolder times to come? Project is loosely structured around themes such as the architecture of the 1990s, reprivatisation, urban sprawl, and the rising influence of private equity and developers, and looks at space not only as something inhabited, but as a site of profit, speculation, and power. The question is not simply what was built, but why – what political, economic, and social logics allowed these forms to materialise. Instead of finger-pointing at appearances, I’m more interested in the reasoning and the mechanisms that made them possible.

2017 – ongoing.

One of the heirs to a pre-war property near the Palace of Culture and Science, Tadeusz Koss, frustrated by city restrictions preventing construction on his reprivatised parcel – originally reclaimed under the controversial Bierut Decree – transformed the plot into a chaotic cluster of makeshift food stalls. The area, featuring bistros and kebab stands, eventually included a decommissioned airplane turned into a restaurant, which violated urban regulations. After public outcry, the city cleared the site. This case is an exemplary of a broader reprivatisation scandal connected to the Bierut Decree and often described as a criminal enterprise. The cleared site eventually became the pathway to the new Museum of Modern Art in Warsaw (MSN).

Warszawa, Osiecka/Jarocińska street. A privately invested expansion on a pre-war tenant house in one of a few parts of the city that were left more or less intact after WW2, and slowly face the fate of future investment prospect for development.

Twarda 30/32. One of the first tenant houses in downtown Warsaw built after the financial and political transformation of 1989 to be enlisted for demolition due to the expansion of office skyscrapers. The current owner deems both buildings "simply too small to use the potential of the parcel".

Built at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the "Golden Townhouses" on Długie Ogrody Street in Gdańsk are a classic example of postmodernist architecture. Featuring corner towers, colorful facades, gilded details, dark mirrored windows, and decorative elements like Medusa heads, they represent the eclectic style of the era. Designed by Stanisław Michel, the complex – formerly known as Artus Park, now Waterfront – consists of five interconnected office buildings totaling 12,000 m². Despite Michel’s notable contributions to Gdańsk’s postwar urban planning, in 2013, the building was voted one of the ugliest in the Tri-City area. The complex gained notoriety during one of the most famous scandals related to the parabanking sector as the headquarters of the Amber Gold company. It is now set to be demolished and replaced by a residential building with ground-floor commercial space.

Several of the projects by Wojciech Jarząbek, one of the most renowned postmodernist architects in Poland in the 1980s and 1990s. Although Jarząbek's contemporary designs are less controversial, many of his period projects have undergone modern interventions to soften their character. Jarząbek's most famous design, the Solpol department store, was demolished in 2022, despite lengthy efforts to have it recognized as a postmodern architectural monument. Currently, no buildings in this style are protected in Poland.

The Częstochowa railway station was built at the turn of the 80’s and 90’s, and it was supposed to fit into a dynamically expanding and growing city. The station designed by Ryszard Frankowicz in the style of postmodernism was not warmly received by the critics of that time, but nonetheless station gained popularity among travellers and was chosen the best train station in Poland.

The procedure to enlist Częstochowa railway station as a cultural monument was started and then dismissed.Officials have reported that it is too large and expensive to maintain.

Demolition started in 2025.

Built in 1995-1997 by an Austrian investor for office and service spaces, Ilmet is the lowest skyscraper in Warsaw (103 m). Located at the United Nations roundabout, the building is currently unused, and the current owner plans to demolish it and replace it with a new, higher building. The entire surroundings of the UN roundabout – subjected to intensive development in the 90s – is now a place of planned demolitions and extensions due to “insufficient use”.

Area of former R-9 bus depot on Chełmska street, Warsaw. Sold by the city-owned bus corporation in 2006 during the peak of investment boom for 370 millions of PLN (almost 100 millions USD) to a Spanish development company Sando Investment, which planned to build a complex of 8- to 15-floor high standard tenant blocks. The price was more than twice higher than the estimate. Currently, analysts deem the parcel “unsell-able” without huge loss to the owner. Nothing was ever built, despite five separate permits being issued.

Biggest DIY spot for skaters in Warsaw, located inside an unfinished shopping mall under the Poniatowski bridge across the Vistula river. The spot is considered breach of construction law, and there talks held between city officials and skaters to set the situation and preserve the spot met with no resolution. it was partially demolished in 2023, when the renovations of the bridge begun.

The world’s largest monument of John Paul II, privately owned Park of Miniatures of Sacred Art in Częstochowa.

Church dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Star of the New Evangelization and Saint John Paul II. A heart of an empire of father Tadeusz Rydzyk – head of Lux Veritatis – a media house associated with the Radio Maryja, Trwam Television and the Nasz Dziennik newspaper. Father Rydzyk is widely recognised as one of the most important people in Poland, and most of the center and right-wing parties are seeking his favour. The temple was created as a vote of gratitude for the pontificate of Pope John Paul II, and was financed by donations from the community centered around Father Rydzyk. The whole building is covered with a dome weighing about 320 tons with an additional crown. Stained glass windows depict scenes from the pontificate of Pope John Paul II, and one of them, with dimensions 4x4 m, depicts the pilgrimage of the Radio Maryja Family to John Paul II and contains a quote from the Pope’s words - “I thank God every day that there is such a radio in Poland and that it is called Radio Maryja.”

St. George roundabout / Dominanta, Gorzów Wielkopolski. Built in 2007 as a tourist attraction, the tower serves as an observation point and a local landmark. It was rewarded The Most Ugly Building in Poland Award (Makabryła) in 2007.

During the demolition of the former Klecina Sugar Refinery chimney – five years after the plant was closed, and ten years after record of production was noted – 36.10 thousand tons of sugar refined – an official city party was organised, where Bogdan Zdrojewski – then president of Wroclaw and later Minister of Culture of the Republic of Poland – as the host described the planned form of cooperation with private company Code, which pledged to build an aquapark and a shopping centre on the premises of the former sugar factory. In effect, the whole terrain was cleared of any marks of former Klecina Sugar Refinery, with only three small office buildings (turned into housing) left. Code company sold the terrain with huge profit few years later. No aquapark was ever built.

Located near one of the main transport interlinks in downtown Warsaw, Czarny Kot hotel gained notoriety as the most famous of unauthorized constructions in Poland. For over twenty years, tenants of the property at Okopowa 65 have been expanding the building without permissions, taking advantage of a loophole in law – each subsequent extension requires starting demolition procedures from the beginning. The hotel – at first a two-story pavilion – became a symbol of breaking building laws, but it was only the investment boom in the area that allowed the city to bring to an end legal procedures related to the demolition of arbitrariness. The hotel was closed, and eventually torn down by the municipality.

Żerański canal, a link between Vistula river and artificial lake in Zegrze was built in the 1950′s in what seemed as the very end of the city of Warsaw, next to a coal heating plant and in close vicinity of huge FSO Żerań car factory. The whole area was in fact a terra incognita, and due to that at least 17 people were murdered on the banks of the canal in its Warsaw part. However, due to the urban sprawl, new housing developments were build nearby, and in 2018 whole area underwent a huge process of deforestation due to the construction of a gas pipeline. More than 5000 trees were cut down.

Świnoujście Warszów municipal ferry terminal. Even though the project works on first land connection between Świnoujście and the rest of Poland are currently underway, the tunnel wouldn’t be finished until 2022. Even after that, city considers maintaining the original ferry service as a tourist attraction. Currently, two ferry connections are the only means of access to the city. The Bielik ferry terminals on both banks of Świna were built in the 90s, and the Warszów one also contains a small bar for those waiting for the ferry to come.

The complex of 90 houses on Jazdów was built in 1945 as the first housing estate in post-war Warsaw intended for housing employees of the Office for the Reconstruction of the Capital (BOS). The wooden houses were part of the Soviet Union's first aid package for the destroyed city, and came from war reparations that Finland was forced to pay to the Soviet Union after World War II.

In 2011, the mayor of the Śródmieście district, Wojciech Bartelski, took action to demolish the houses as they were inappropriate for such a prestigious location. In 2015, the district withdrew these plans after protests. In 2024, several of the approximately 20 houses were inhabited. The rest were made available by the Śródmieście District Office to various NGOs.

Ursus factory, Hall no. 270 (2022). Ursus agricultural vehicle production plants, dating back to the end of the 19th century, were one of the largest industrial plants in the Polish capital, located in the district bearing the name of the plant. The site of workers' strikes in 1976. After the political transformation, the plant found itself in a bad financial situation, and after gradual demise, in 2011 production in plants located in Warsaw was completely stopped. In 2021, the final closure of the company and its subsidies was announced. The plant area was sold and mostly built up in the second decade of the 21st century with housing estates. One of the last buildings of ZPC Ursus was the hall of the tractor assembly plant number 270, or rather its front part housing the museum.

FSO Warsaw Factory, Heavy Press facility. One of the few buildings left intact after FSO – biggest polish company in automotive industry – bankrupted. Most of the former factory was either razed, or soon would be. Current plan is to build residential developments in the area.

Bliska Wola Tower, a 95-meter-high residential complex in Warsaw's Wola district, is located on the site of the former VIS Factory, a historic producer of tools, machines, and munitions. The tower, developed by J.W. Construction, faced legal disputes over 157 units classified as hotel rooms, preventing residents from obtaining ownership documents from city authorities. Its high-density design and close proximity of windows have drawn comparisons to Hong Kong's overcrowded housing blocks, sparking criticism from urban planners and residents.

The Bliska Wola Tower estate is one of the most striking examples of the transformation of Wola – a former industrial district of Warsaw – into an office and residential district, as well as an example of the lack of a coherent policy related to housing construction and spatial planning in Poland.

Odolany, a district of Warsaw that, after its post-war reconstruction, was home to large industrial plants – including the Świerczewski and Waryński factories – and was also the location of one of the city's major railway junctions – has in recent years become one of the most visible examples of the ongoing shift from industrial to residential use in the Polish capital. However, the dynamic development of multi-family housing in accordance with new legal standards has meant that the estate continues to struggle with significant infrastructure problems – inadequate transport links, traffic jams, and smog. In several places, the small industrial plants remaining within the estate border residential buildings.

Built in 1994/95, the three blocks on Dudziarska street were designed as a temporary housing for people evicted out of social projects, and for those otherwise unable to secure living due to the income instability. The idea behind the Dudziarska project was to design the whole neighbourhood in a manner supporting the notion to escape poverty; the virtual inaccessibility of Dudziarska street, located on the literal other side of tracks behind the huge railway depot in the middle of nowhere was thought about as a stimulus to motivate tenants to improve their material situation as quickly as possible, and move out of the estate. In addition, to ensure order, some of the apartments were allocated to the quarters for police employees who were supposed to watch the neighbourhood after hours. An isolated location, requiring illegal crossing of railway tracks or traveling around a rarely-circuiting bus (the line was launched only in 2007, after many years of district council efforts), together with the character of the estate in effect caused total ghettoisation, thus effectively preventing residents from any attempt to get out of the situation causing their relocation, and stigmatising them. The temporary nature of the buildings, designed without central heating, requires additional heating with electric heaters, which creates a spiral of indebtedness to the electricity supplier – the cost of heating per month can equal the cost of rent for a room in the city centre, if not even exceed it. As part of social and cultural activities for the residents of the project, cultural activists organised an event of painting the walls with works of contemporary painting, with the Black Square of Kazimierz Malewicz on the wall facing the street in all three buildings. The inhabitants perceived this action as an additional stigmatisation. In 2017, the city authorities admitted the absolute failure of the Dudziarska project, and announced a gradual abandonment of the estate and its demolition or change of character.

Marymont-Ruda, Warsaw. In Poland, approximately 12 million people live in prefabricated buildings, representing approximately one-third of the country's population. It is estimated that there are approximately 60,000 prefabricated buildings in Poland, containing a total of 4 million apartments.

The Rotunda, designed by Jerzy Jakubowicz and completed in 1966, was part of the "Eastern Wall" urban development in central Warsaw. In 1979, a gas explosion destroyed about 70% of the building, killing 49 people and injuring over 100. It was rebuilt the same year. Although the building was listed as a historic site, a 2015 decision allowed its demolition, citing post-blast reconstruction as non-original. However, in 2017, demolition was halted when it was discovered that key structural elements were indeed original. The building was ultimately dismantled, with some components – like the iconic roof beams – were said to be preserved and showcased in the new design.

The tunnel, which connected Złota Street with Plac Defilad in the very center of Warsaw, was closed at the end of June 2024. Once filled, a green square with rest and recreation areas, as well as a reservoir, will be created in its place. The filling of the tunnel under Marszałkowska Street is one of the stages of a larger redevelopment of Warsaw's city center, as part of the New Center of Warsaw project announced in 2019, which will transform the central area into a pedestrian-focused space.

Łódź. Remains of former quarter of houses on Składowa street, demolished to make space for the new Łódź Fabryczna train station.

The Cepelia Pavilion, a late modernist building at Marszałkowska 99/101 in Warsaw, was designed by Zygmunt Stępiński and opened in 1966 as a showcase for Polish folk art. Its steel frame, extensive glazing, and ceramic tile façade made it a striking example of 1960s architecture. After years of neglect in the 1990s and 2000s, when it was used mostly as an advertising location, it was listed as a protected monument in 2019. Controversial plans to turn it into a McDonald’s were eventually dropped, and a faithful restoration began in 2024. In December 2024, the pavilion reopened with an Empik store, preserving its original form and details, and obtaining prizes for the metamorphosis.

Built between 1978 and 1989 at the banks of Wisla in Krakow, Hotel Forum was one of the most high-end investments in transformation-era Poland. It was closed after only 12 years, officialy due to construction errors. Since then, it operates as biggest and longest billboard space in Poland. A club was opened on a ground floor in 2013. It was closed in 2024, to make room for upcoming renovations by the new owner.

A complex of service pavilions on Chłodna Street – a street known mainly from another section, which during the war was located in the Warsaw Ghetto – demolished as a part of process of intense development of mainly residential buildings. The district of the so-called Bliska Wola is undergoing an intensive transformation into the office center of Warsaw.

The Wolf Krongold Tenement House was built between 1896 and 1899 at 83 Złota Street in Warsaw. The building was commonly referred to as "Pekin" (Beijing), a colloquial term for an overcrowded tenement building. In 1989, the building was listed as a historic monument. In the late 1990s, a fire broke out on the fourth floor. In 2003, the residents and tenants of the commercial premises were evicted. In February 2015, the city sold the building to a company belonging to the international group AFI Europe. On November 15, 2015, a fire broke out again in the abandoned building. Renovations began in 2019. Almost only the exterior walls were preserved, with the rest hollowed out. The tenement house was rebuilt into a luxury apartment building.

The Smolensk monument is intended to be the central monument for the victims of the disaster, and the culmination of eight years of monthly memorial marches. The location of the obelisk of Jerzy Kalina’s project at Piłsudski Square, contrary to the protests of decision-makers in the spatial planning of the city of Warsaw, was made possible by the decision of the province governor of Mazovia, who ruled the square – located in the middle of Warsaw downtown – as “an area of particular importance for the defense of the country”, and in effect took the jurisdiction over it from the hands of the city officials. The voivode, favoring the ruling party, then issued permit for the development of new monument on the square - already furnished by two monuments, including the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. The construction of the monument began in the winter of 2018, carrying out construction works under a tent, and keeping its final shape in secret. The unveiling took place the day after the picture was taken, as part of the ceremony commemorating the victims.

The former building of Hoffman High School at Emilii Plater street. The high school, one of the best schools in the city, was moved in 2013, and its building - a modernist project from 1961 - was to be demolished, so that the city could sell a plot of land to a private investor for development with a skyscraper. The spatial plan for this plot - located in the close vicinity of the tallest buildings in the capital - was repealed by the voivode in 2015, and finally there were no buyers willing to buy the site for 210 million PLN. The buildings was declared historic, and one of them was designated by the city for the temporary location of the Komuna Warsaw theater, whose building was urgently decommissioned due to structural defects.

Wyspa Spichrzów in Gdańsk, once a historic granary district, was long considered the city's anti-business card, awaiting an investment transformation. In the second half of the 2010s, articles optimistically forecast the impact of new investments on the island. Later, the most expensive apartments in Poland were reported to be located there. Crystal mirrors, gold mosaics, and marble floors.

It has been heavily redeveloped into a dense cluster of luxury apartments and short-term rentals. The area is now dominated by Airbnb and Booking.com listings, earning it the nickname “Booking.com Island.” Tourists fill the island year-round, leading to frequent complaints about noise, lack of community, and the non-existence of local life. While visually appealing, the island is now a mentioned as an example of overtourism and poor urban planning.

After the war, Sikorskiego Street in Wrocław housed a large transshipment port and industrial plants, including Volta and Polsport. In 2007, the investor, Pathway Plaza, unveiled plans to build Riverview, an apartment complex, on the site. A skyscraper was also planned for the site (two versions were available: 55 meters or 100 meters). The investor only managed to dig a fairly large trench, which had to be backfilled two years later. The Atal Towers development was built on the same site. The adjacent building, Odra Tower, was initially planned to be 140 meters, and 32 stories high. The building is 54.9 meters, and 17 stories high.

In 2023, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań announced the closure and potential sale of the Jowita Student Housing building. Jowita, a 13-story modernist student dormitory completed in 1964, is one of the architectural landmarks near Rondo Kaponiera in Poznań. Designed by Witold Milewski and Zygmunt Skupniewicz, it features a striking white façade made from broken porcelain tiles and once offered upgraded rooms for university students and fair visitors. The decision sparked a student protest and occupation of the building, ended after government assurances of funding for renovation and commitments to expand student housing nationwide. Currently, the building is empty.

Osiedle Przyjaźń, originally built in 1952 to house Soviet workers constructing the Palace of Culture and Science, later became student housing in 1955, accommodating 3,000 students and faculty under the new name "Przyjaźń.". The settlement, with its wooden buildings and community facilities, remains a historic site.

Recently, tensions have arisen between residents and Warsaw city authorities after the Academy of Special Education ended lease agreements, leading to accusations of forced evictions. While the city claims it is addressing illegal occupancy, activists from the "Przyjaźń" collective accuse Mayor Rafał Trzaskowski of conducting wild evictions without court orders, alleging that officials, accompanied by police, have forcibly removed occupants, including families with children and the elderly. Legal experts suggest that bypassing judicial procedures in such matters could be deemed illegal.

Decentrum was one of the biggest squats in Polish independent scene history. Located in Białystok and active between 2000 and 2005 with additional reopening in 2006, it became a centre of very active local scene and home of various anarchist, activist and artist collectives. It was evicted to prepare the building – owned by the city – for sale in 2006. It is still empty and unused today.

The building on the corner of Paderewskiego and Szkolna, next to Poznań’s Old Market Square. After WW2, it housed a Moda Polska departament store. In 1999, Elektromis bought part of the shares. The store closed at that time, and workers entered the building, tearing off plaster, tiles, and wallpaper. Elektromis justified the move with a renovation order. The work was likely intended to force the co-owners to sell their shares and move out. However, the renovation was carried out without the required permits, so the building inspectorate halted it. In 2007, the buildings were purchased by another company, but it lost interest in the property, and its owners disappeared, leaving behind millions in debt.

From 2012 to 2015, the building housed a squat called Od:zysk. The new owner decided to pay the squatters 125,000 PLN to move out. The anarchists announced that the money would be used to support the Wielkopolska Tenants' Association.

Since then, the building has been empty. According to information from 2024, the investor plans to turn it into a hotel.

The Vistula Boulevards in Warsaw are one of the city’s most popular leisure spots, known for their relaxed atmosphere and legal outdoor alcohol consumption. The area began gaining popularity especially after the opening of the Wisłostrada tunnel in 2003, which gave pedestrians better access to the riverfront. A wave of revitalization brought modern landscaping, cultural events, and food trucks, making the boulevards a fashionable weekend destination. However, plans to redevelop the section between Świętokrzyski and Poniatowski bridges, announced in 2017, raised concerns among some city residents regarding the potential privatization of part of the space and change of its character, and as a result, the displacement of nightlife from this part of the city.

In Poland, some rural areas are undergoing a process of reclassification of agricultural land into building plots. This shift often transforms traditional villages into seasonal holiday destinations. Farmland is replaced by second homes, gated communities, and rental cabins, especially in scenic or lakeside locations. As a result, local agriculture declines. The phenomenon contributes to urban sprawl and weakens the social fabric of rural communities.

Boszkowo-Letnisko is a popular holiday resort near Poznań, situated on Lake Dominickie. Decayed holiday resorts from the communist era have been rebuilt or demolished, and now a significant portion of the previously public areas have been occupied by private resorts and hotels.

Aleja Prymasa Tysiąclecia is a major arterial road in Warsaw, built in parts between 1969 and 1997 as part of the inner-city expressway system. It forms part of Poland's national road DK7 and the European routes E77 and E30, linking the southern and eastern parts of the country with the capital. The road cuts through Warsaw Wola district, serving as a fast, cross-town corridor for cars and trucks. Despite surrounding residential areas and proximity to public transport lines, its design heavily favors motor traffic, with limited pedestrian crossings and poor integration with the urban fabric.

Jagodno was incorporated into Wrocław in 1951. As recently as the late 1990s, Jagodno was a rural area with just around 800 residents. By 2024, its population ballooned to nearly 20,000 as dense housing developments replaced fields. In 2023, the district gained national attention during the parliamentary election, when the election commission in Jagodno ran out of ballots, causing long wait times for voters. The last ballots were cast around 3 a.m. after hours of waiting The final number of eligible voters nearly doubled the official number of people declaring Jagodno as their permanent residence, as the obligation to register has been relaxed in recent years.

Twarda 30/32 being torn down to make place for further investments. In the background, new office architecture of the Rondo ONZ area of downtown Warsaw.